Among all the halogens, fluorine is known to produce the most interesting properties when used for substitution/modification in proteins due to its possibility to dramatically change their spectral properties. The primary advantage of such a rational redesign is the opportunity to introduce specifically targeted changes since the chromophore of autofluorescent proteins is completely encoded in its amino acid sequence. The unique spectral properties of proteins such as EGFP and dsRed might be used as sensitive probes and reporters of the interactions within the chromophore and between the chromophore and its protein matrix. Thus variations of the chromophore itself as well as of its surrounding protein matrix by classical protein engineering were performed. In this study, site-directed mutagenesis is supplemented with methods for incorporation of monofluorinated aromatic amino acids in order to create novel classes of autofluorescent proteins. The rationale of incorporating electronegative fluorine atoms is to (a) covalently modify the chromophore (which can cause a fundamental change of its resonance properties) and (b) manipulate electrostatic interactions between the chromophore and its surrounding protein environment in order to change its spectral properties. This was brought about by global replacements of tyrosine residues with 2- and 3-fluorotyrosine in EGFP and EYFP. Such replacements resulted in shifts in pKa-values, anion/cation equilibrium upon titration, blue/red shifts in absorbance and fluorescence. These differences are more pronounced in fluorinated EYFPs than in EGFPs due to the fluorination of Tyr203, unique for the EYFPs. Modelling studies indicate conformational space for possible chromophore flipping in fluorinated EGFPs but not for fluorinated EYFPs due to its involvement in stacking interactions with Tyr203. Indeed, the three dimensional structure of 3-fluorotyrosyl EGFP in the crystalline state revealed two conformational states of fluorine in the chromophore as well as in the majority of (3-F)Tyr-side chains in this protein. Astonishingly, in (2-F)Tyr-EGFP, both the chromophore, and other 2-fluorotyrosyl residues globally represent only one conformeric state. These properties are undoubtedly intrinsic features of the fluorinated chromophores in the context of the rigid surrounding protein matrix. In addition, the crucial Tyr203 in EYFP was replaced with Phe by site-directed mutagenesis and subsequently fluorinated at ortho-, meta- and para-positions in order to further manipulate the spectral properties of EYFP. Contrary to our expectations, ortho- and meta-fluorinations of the Tyr-residues in dsRed did not induce significant changes in the spectral profiles of these variants, possibly due to partial replacements of the analogues. Cytotoxic and pharmacological properties of fluorinated aromatic amino acids have still not received enough attention in recent years. The overall protein structure is unchanged upon replacement of native Tyr and Trp residues with their isosteric fluorinated analogues since they resemble their canonical counterparts in shape and size. In this way, pharmacologically active or cytotoxic amino acids that might serve as diagnostic markers, are covalently integrated into the polypeptide in an inactive prodrug form and should exert no toxicity during delivery. In order to test this concept, a preliminary examination in cell lines using fluorinated variants (fluorinated Tyr, Phe, and Trp analogues) of enhanced green fluorescent protein and β-galactosidase are presented in this study as well. In this context, attempts to incorporate analogues of aliphatic amino acids like Met and Leu containing a trifluoromethyl group into EGFP are presented as well. The most interesting property of these noncanonical amino acids is their enhanced hydrophobicity. This feature is often exploited to improve the performance of small drugs in suppressing metabolic toxicity, increasing bioavailability in the delivery of many pharmaceuticals or enhancing drug activity. Until now attempts to globally substitute Leu and Met residues with their trifluoro-analogues in GFP have resulted in only marginal replacement.
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Among all the halogens, fluorine is known to produce the most interesting properties when used for substitution/modification in proteins due to its possibility to dramatically change their spectral properties. The primary advantage of such a rational redesign is the opportunity to introduce specifically targeted changes since the chromophore of autofluorescent proteins is completely encoded in its amino acid sequence. The unique spectral properties of proteins such as EGFP and dsRed might be use...
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